Indianapolis Free Kindergarten

By Sally Harvey-Koelpin

Graduate Student, Indiana University at Bloomington

Definition

After the Civil War, kindergarten training was viewed as an essential ingredient in ameliorating conditions of poverty and in developing an American identity in immigrants. In their personal commitment to work for the common good, many influential and wealthy citizens combined their resources to support free kindergarten programs for low-income, minority, and immigrant children living in conditions of poverty in large urban areas (Tyack 1974). Free kindergartens first appeared in 1877 in the northeastern United States. They proved successful and soon spread to other areas of the country. Many early kindergarten organizations later transformed into Progressive social programs "that provided comprehensive educational services to children, mothers, and families" (Beatty 1995, 99-100).

In 1881, Indianapolis, Indiana, a handful of members of the Indianapolis Benevolent Society decided to focus its efforts on the care of poor children. The group conducted a survey of families in need. It was renamed the Children's Aid Society (1882-1952) to reflect the new direction of its work and, in 1882, with seventy-five members, the society contained many of the most prominent women in the community. Believing in the potential of kindergarten to ameliorate conditions of poverty, the committee decided to organize a trial kindergarten in the summer of 1882. It formed the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society and began establishing free kindergarten schools throughout Indianapolis. By 1907, the society asserted thirty-three free kindergartens existed in Indianapolis neighborhoods. During the twenty-five years since the society had been established, the kindergartens had enrolled 49,252 students.

The work of the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society illustrates how the common good can be promoted when efforts of educators, philanthropists, and social reformers merge to address critical social issues.

Historic Roots

In the late nineteenth century, Indianapolis, Indiana, was in the midst of the tremendous change typical of rapidly growing urban areas (Leary 1971). Low-

income urban neighborhoods began to emerge in the city, bringing with them a host of social problems. In the spring of 1881, Reverend Oscar McCulloh, pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church, sought to renew the efforts of the Indianapolis Benevolent Society out of concern for the plight of the urban poor. Twelve people attended the initial meeting where, after considerable debate, members decided to focus the work of the society on the care of poor children. The members of the society began conducting "friendly visits" to investigate the conditions of children living in poverty.

Based on these initial reports three goals were established to guide the work of the society. The first goal was to keep the society informed of the number, present conditions, and places of education for poor families, and also to "note the disposition of children belonging to dependent families or in public institutions" (IFK "Minutes of" 1881, 30). The second goal was

to urge upon the community the importance of adopting and enforcing such measures in the care and training of these children as may tend effectually to destroy hereditary pauperism and enable them to become useful citizens and good men and women. (Ibid.)

The third goal was to address the high number of truant children growing up in the midst of vicious surroundings (Ibid.). The Indianapolis Benevolent Society was renamed the Children's Aid Society to reflect the new direction of its work. By 1882, the society was comprised of seventy-five members, including many prominent women in the community.

That year, the ladies of the society took a census of six hundred dependent families to further ascertain the conditions of the children. Reverend McCulloh convened a committee of five society members to investigate various ways to address the census findings. Believing in the potential of kindergarten to ameliorate conditions of poverty, the committee decided to organize a trial kindergarten in the summer of 1882. It formed the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society. The initial program was based on similar initiatives in Boston and San Francisco. The first kindergarten was located in the hallway of an Indianapolis public school building. The summer program was so successful that a room was rented in a church to continue the kindergarten in the fall. By the end of 1882, the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and the Children's Aid Society began to work closely together "to establish and maintain Free Kindergarten schools in the city of Indianapolis for the education and moral training of the children of the poor between the ages of three and eight years, and in the material assistance of those for whom parents are unable to make adequate provision" (IFKCAS "Articles" 1884, 1).

Initially, the kindergartens were staffed by volunteers. In 1882, Eliza Ann Blaker, a trained kindergarten educator, was hired by members of the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society to establish the first permanent kindergarten in one of the poorest areas of the city. The society provided funds for operating expenses. The ladies of the society also raised money to help with materials and sewed clothing for the children. In addition, members provided kindergarten families with Thanksgiving dinners, Christmas trees, entertainment, candy, and toys. This first kindergarten was described as the beginning of "an experiment that was to grow into a program of social welfare that was to have far-reaching effects upon Indianapolis" (IFK "Minutes of" 1881, 30).

The kindergartens proved to be very popular and, by 1884, three schools had been organized under Blaker's able leadership. These included two schools for poor white children and one for African-American students. Also that year, the kindergartens were officially incorporated and the societies merged to form The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society. Blaker was unanimously chosen to oversee kindergarten operations.

In response to needs assessments based on the census and visits, efforts were made to tailor the kindergartens to the needs of urban children and communities. Kindergarten students were provided with the necessities of life such as clothing, shoes, baths, breakfast, and lunch. Kindergartens in the poorest areas were organized to provide year-round programs. Classes for mothers focused on childcare, and placed heavy emphasis on the role of the parent in the development of the child. Classes for fathers were offered as well. As a further outreach to the community, Saturday classes were held for older children in the family and offered instruction in domestic skills, as well as opportunities to participate in a variety of academic and interest clubs. By assuming these social functions, members of the society noted that "in every district where the Free Kindergartens are placed, they have become social centers for the neighborhoods" (IFKCAS 1907, 1) . As an original member of the society recalled, "For almost twenty years, the money for the support of the kindergarten was derived by personal and private

solicitation, by teas, etc." (Hufford 1930). A newsletter noted that to maintain the kindergartens, the society appealed "to the large-hearted friends of little children for financial aid in carrying forward its most important work for better homes and better morals" (IFKCAS 1907, 1). Society membership dues supported the programs and demonstration kindergartens were held at the Indiana State Fair to inform the public about the work of the Society and to solicit private donations. Fundraisers such as the annual Free Kindergarten Ball, which became a premier social event, were held to help support the programs. To raise additional money, the society published The Kindergarten Monthly and held an annual Play Fest.

With passage of a 1901 law in the Indiana General Assembly became the first state to appropriate public taxes for kindergartens. This allocated one cent for each hundred dollars of assessed property value toward kindergarten support. However, this covered less than half of the kindergartens' expenses and the deficit continued to be ameliorated by fundraising efforts and private donations.

Researcher Dawn Roberts concluded that, as a Progressive social reformer, "Eliza Blaker believed in an equal education for all; therefore, race, color, or creed could not bar anyone from admittance to her school. No one was ever turned away" (1982, 1). The purpose of the kindergarten from Blaker's perspective was "preparation for school life, usefulness in the home, and formation of character and good citizenship" (IFKCAS "Minutes" 1911). By 1907, the kindergartens had enrolled 49,252 students and thirty-three kindergartens had been established (including those for Italian, Slavonic, and Austro-Hungarian students), as well as programs for orphans and sick children. The kindergartens were located in a variety of places including leased houses, community churches, and institutions such as the Children's Guardian Home.

A multicultural kindergarten opened in 1911. Three years later, "almost every nationality is represented in the kindergartens of this city" (IFK "Statement" 1914). It was also noted that in districts with high immigrant populations the kindergartens were "invaluable towards the Americanizing of the older members, as well as the children" (IFK "Statement" 1914). Eventually, in 1952, the kindergartens were absorbed by the Indianapolis Public School system and the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society disbanded.

Importance

Kindergarten programs in the United States were originally established as a "voluntary supplement to upper- and middle-class child rearing rather than a remedial intrusion into lower-class family life" (Beatty 1995, 52). By the 1880s, kindergartens began to transform into Progressive Era social reform programs that were "promoted as an antidote to the harm that city life was supposedly doing to young children" (Beatty 1989, 66). Moreover, kindergartens came to be viewed as "a primary educational method of dealing with the problems of urban poverty" (Spring 2001, 232), which increased as a result of rapid industrialization and increased immigration. Thus, "child gardening was taken up as a form of urban social reform and racial 'uplifting'" (Beatty 1989, 76). Consequently, free kindergarten programs financially supplemented the cost of cities' responses to urban poverty by providing critical welfare services to families in need.

In an era when women primarily operated within the private sphere, becoming involved in the organization of free kindergarten programs allowed them to enlarge their arena of influence to the public domain and "gain access to power" (McCarthy 1990, ix; Beatty 1995). Women's involvement in free kindergarten societies and children's aid organizations was not only a search for identity, but also represented a realistic response to the conditions of poverty (Berg 1978).

Ties to the Philanthropic Sector

The post-Civil War period witnessed a dramatic expansion in the number and variety of women's organizations throughout the United States (Berg 1978; McCarthy 1990, 1998). These organizations were formed in response to an increase in social problems caused by rapid urbanization and growing immigration. Many of these Progressive Era voluntary associations chose to concentrate their efforts on "child saving" to benefit children living in poverty (Cahan 1989). Poverty was viewed by philanthropists, social reformers, and educators as a condition prevented and reversed through the instruction of young children in proper habits, morals, and citizenship responsibilities.

Many children's aid societies adhered to the ideology of scientific philanthropy, which postulated that problems in society could be effectively addressed through science and reason. Many of these organizations "pioneered a range of new forms in which aid could be delivered" (Cunningham and Innes 1998, 7). Furthermore, women's giving of time and money "provided services that the public sector otherwise would have had to manage" (McCarthy 1998, 64). Consequently, these voluntary associations financially supported early childhood education programs before public funds were allocated for kindergartens and provided women with the opportunity to play "a crucial economic role in organizations and communities" (Ibid.).

The philanthropic endeavors of women's associations have also contributed to the building of institutions (McCarthy 1998, ix). As systems of free kindergartens expanded, more trained kindergarten teacher were needed. Many children's aid societies provided financial assistance to establish and maintain teacher-training institutions in addition to supporting kindergarten programs. As with the successful development of the Teachers' College in Indianapolis (established by Eliza Ann Blaker), "most early kindergarten training programs were small, one-woman operations" primarily supported by fundraising efforts and private donations (Beatty 1989, 76). The success of these early kindergarten programs and teacher training institutions was made possible by "well-to-do women who . . gave time and money to raise funds, publicize . . . and promote the activities of these leaders" (Edwards 2002, xiv-xv).

Key Related Ideas

American kindergarten movement : After the Civil War, kindergarten training was viewed as an essential ingredient in ameliorating conditions of poverty and in developing an American identity in immigrants. To this purpose, public schools were formed to also aid these populations. Likewise, individuals and groups of wealthy people (usually women) began free kindergartens in urban areas to help children living under these conditions. Many early free kindergarten organizations later transformed into Progressive social programs "that provided comprehensive educational services to children, mothers, and families" (Beatty 1995, 99-100).

Americanization : A process of inculcating in immigrant or indigenous (i.e., Native Americans) populations the behaviors and attitudes seen as acceptable to

Americanization (continued) -the dominant society. In the late 1800s to late-1900s, the dominant culture would clearly be defined as Anglo-Saxon Protestant. Often this process meant eliminating or devaluing the behaviors and attitudes of the immigrants' native cultures.

Charity/free kindergartens : Free kindergartens first appeared in 1877 in the northeastern United States and proved so successful that they spread to other areas of the country. These kindergartens were formed by influential and wealthy citizens who combined their resources. The programs were intended to provide positive socializing influences and help meet basic needs for low-income, minority, and immigrant children living in conditions of poverty in large urban areas and to Americanize immigrants (Tyack 1974). Often, these free kindergartens were opened in areas where public schools were not available but, over time, many were incorporated into the public school systems.

Social reform : The ideas and action whose goal is to make available the benefits of a democratic, capitalist country to all citizens, rather than the few. These benefits include equal pay, equal access to health care and education, equal treatment of individuals regardless of their gender, race, ethnicity, or religion. Among the most sweeping social reforms are child labor laws, woman suffrage, education reform , and abolition (or the Civil Rights movement). In current day America, health care reform and gay rights are among the most prominent reform issues. These movements are all concerned with enacting social change for the betterment of all citizens of society, particularly the disenfranchised, impoverished, minority, or immigrant populations.

Urban education : Educational opportunities (usually free) for children and adults who live in urban areas and, most often, belong to impoverished, minority or immigrant populations.

Women's voluntary associations or women's volunteer organizations :The nonprofit sector, according to Lester Salamon (1999), is "a set of organizations that is privately constituted but serves some public purpose, such as the advancement of health, education, scientific progress, social welfare, or the free expression of ideas.

Women have formed voluntary associations in America since its inception, using them as an alternative to conventional positions of influence and power, in order to congregate, to share common interests, to gain valuable experiences and knowledge, and to address social ills or inequities they witnessed within their communities. Largely because the patriarchal and/or religious rules on which many of today's societies have been built have inhibited the ability of women and other minority groups to fully participate at all levels. Wealthy, educated men have controlled most political and economic positions of power in the societies of western civilization. Yet, the nonprofit sector has proven to be an effective vehicle for women in providing them with a relative seat of power. (Shimmel "Women's Use of")

Important People Related to the Topic

Eliza Ann Blaker (1854-1926): Organized free kindergartens in Indianapolis, Indiana. Began the Teacher's College of Indianapolis which later became the elementary education department of Butler University's College of Education.

Anna Bryan (1858-1901): Director of Free Kindergartens in Louisville, Kentucky, beginning in 1887.

Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852): A German educator who believed that every child is born with his or her optimal educational ability but must be loved and given the proper stimulation to develop optimally. Froebel's philosophies of pre-school development involved free self-activity, creativity, social participation, and motor expression. He is credited as being the founder of the kindergarten concept.

Alice Putnam (1841-1919): Organized the Chicago Free Kindergarten Club in 1883.

Lucy Wheelock (1857-1946): Established kindergarten training schools in the late nineteenth century, including what later became Wheelock College.

Related Nonprofit Organizations

Association of Junior Leagues International is an organization that supports community-based Junior Leagues and assists them with training. The organization's women members work to better their communities and its programs cover a wide range of issues, including: education, child care, youth services, health, child welfare, family support services, community development, and culture (Association of Junior Leagues). Information on Junior League of Indianapolis is available at http://www.jlindy.org .

The Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid Society : In 1881, Indianapolis, Indiana, a handful of members of the Indianapolis Benevolent Society decided to focus its efforts on the care of poor children. The group surveyed 600 of the city's poorest families. The members renamed the society the Children's Aid Society (1882-1952) to reflect the new direction of its work. It possessed seventy-five members, including many of the community's most prominent women. Believing in the potential of kindergarten to ameliorate conditions of poverty, the committee decided to organize a trial kindergarten in the summer of 1882. It formed the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Society and began establishing free kindergarten schools throughout Indianapolis. A number of these kindergartens were incorporated into the Indianapolis Public Schools system at a later date.

Teachers' College of Indianapolis (later, the Elementary Education Department at Butler University ): Eliza Ann Blaker established a teacher training institution, Teacher's College of Indianapolis. The school received accreditation from the state and after four-year courses were added the first Bachelor of Pedagogy degree was earned in 1917. During this period, Butler University was also training high school teachers and the two training programs maintained a reciprocal relationship. The Teachers' College served as a model for teacher training institutions and attracted national and international interest. After Blaker's death in 1926, the school experienced severe financial difficulties and, in 1930, Butler University agreed to pay the indebtedness, estimated at $25,000, for property and control of the Teachers' College. Consequently, it became the elementary department of Butler University's School of Education. The contract stipulated that Butler must keep Eliza's memory alive in some fashion, to recognize her lifetime of service.

Related Web Sites

Butler University Archives Web site contains a brief biography of Eliza Blaker and a list of available archival materials regarding Blaker and Teachers' College. Access the site at http://www.butler.edu/library/libinfo/rare/blaker.pdf .

The Indiana Historical Society Web site provides a brief history of the Indianapolis Free Kindergartens and a list of the organization's archival materials. Available at http://www.indianahistory.org/library/
manuscripts/collection_guides/m0166.html

Bibliography and Internet Sources

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